1. Introduction
Land degradation, a persistent decline in soil quality and its
productivity caused by natural or anthropogenic factors, has adversely
affected food production, the supply of ecosystem services and
livelihoods globally (Kotiaho and Halme, 2018). Even though it occurs
throughout the world, the extent and degree of degradation vary with
regions. For instance, dryland areas of African countries and Australia;
mountain ranges of the Himalayas; and densely populated areas of South
Asia are more vulnerable (Bai et al., 2008; Nachtergaele et al., 2011).
The consequences of land degradation are severe as it impacts adversely
on agronomic productivity, food security and the quality of life
(Conacher, 2009). By 2030, the demand for food is expected to increase
by at least 50%, which requires conservation and restoration of the
productivity of agricultural land. It is estimated that a 60% increase
in agricultural productivity, will be necessary by 2050 in order to
overcome hunger and food insecurity (Alexandratos and Bruinsma, 2012).
Many factors play a role in the global spread of agricultural land
degradation. The spread and growth of populations, inappropriate
land-use practices, excessive use of chemicals, mechanized agriculture
and natural phenomena such as erosion (by water and wind), floods and
drought are the proximate causes of degradation (Conacher, 2009). In
countries like Nepal, where the demographic pattern is changing
substantially due to the outmigration of the economically active
population, agriculture land degradation is becoming a serious issue
(Jaquet et al., 2015). In a subsistence economy, farmers are forced to
cultivate marginal lands; use agrochemicals; and follow intensive
farming and mechanized agriculture to sustain their livelihoods. All
these activities have resulted in a gradual depletion of soil nutrients
(Rasul and Thapa, 2003; Westarp et al., 2004).
Reducing further degradation and restoring the degraded agricultural
land may contribute to the first three sustainable development goals
(SDGs) including no poverty; and good health and well-being
substantially. Since the underlying causes of land degradation are
multifaceted, it requires an integrated approach of farmland management
(Conacher, 2009). A single strategy may be counterproductive, for
instance, reduction in chemical fertiliser application may result in
decreased crop yield and hence, food insecurity. In this context,
agroforestry, which is an integrated tree-based farming system, has come
into the forefront given the potential to address land degradation with
additional environmental and social benefits (Jose, 2009; Ramachandran
Nair et al., 2009). Agroforestry plays an important role in biodiversity
conservation (Dhakal et al., 2012; Harvey et al., 2006; Kabir and Webb,
2008; Moguel and Toledo, 1999) Similarly, it has higher financial
returns compared to that of the conventional agriculture (Neupane and
Thapa, 2001). It also provides biosafety as it is less likely to have
crop failure compared to the treeless system (Dhakal, 2013). This may be
because the agroforestry system restores soil fertility (Neupane and
Thapa, 2001; Schwab et al., 2015), and rehabilitates degraded
agricultural land (Acharya and Kafle, 2009).
Having so many economic and environmental benefits, agroforestry should
be a widely adopted practice. However, the adoption status of such
promising land use is not encouraging and not widespread as expected
even though there are several national and international organizations
working in the promotion of this agricultural practice. There might be
disincentives to establishing trees including lack of knowledge, upfront
costs, length of time until there is a return and a short to medium-term
reduction in cash flow and/or household food production (Cockfield,
2005). Nonetheless, there has been a wealth of research works on
agroforestry adoption (Mercer, 2004). Most of the existing literature is
focused on the social, economic and environmental contributions of an
agroforestry system (Mbow et al., 2014; Tscharntke et al., 2015; Waldron
et al., 2017).
However, the main question to be answered is what the determinants of
adopting an agroforestry system are. This study assesses the determining
factors of agroforestry adoption in Nepal. The findings of the study are
useful for policymakers, development agencies and academicians.