Traditionally, the perspectives of a wildlife
ecologist and endocrinologist regarding the psychological effects of
predator exposure differed. Immunohistochemistry techniques were
developed to understand the expression of c-fos in response to
predator induced stress and exposure (Dielenberg et al. 2001).
Staples et al. (2009) and Mackenzie et al. (2004)
successfully mapped the expression of fosB and its protein product as an
alternative to c-fos. Moreover, global gene expression in response to
predator exposure was assessed using cDNA microarray (Rosenboom et
al. 2007). Recently, Yehuda & Bierer (2009) stated the epigenetic
modification of individual differences to the susceptibility of PTSD.
Behavioural and physiological stress studies suggested predator exposure
can lead to chronic stress and long-lasting detriments in prey
individuals (Boonstra et al. 1998). Few studies, however,
determine the impacts of predator exposure on population structure and
reproduction. Primarily, time and space limitations obstruct the
quantification of reproductive depression as a result of
exposure-induced stress in experimental studies; while free-ranging
individuals can avoid and, therefore, minimize predator encounters,
those in artificial or manipulated enclosures are less able to do so
(Stankowich & Blumstein 2005; Clinchy et al. 2013). Artificial
LOF manipulations enable the recording of immediate or lasting
neurological impacts of exposure. For instance, magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) data have evaluated the immediate neurological effects of
predator odour exposure on rodents (Chen et al. 2009; Febo &
Pira 2011). Implications upon a community scale and across generations,
however, may remain unattended as a result of limited time and
materials.