Predator species
Prey species
Sensory modality
Behaviour response
Result
Reference(s)
Black bear (Ursus americanus) Elk (Cervus canadensis) Visual Habitat use black bear predation as well as mountain lion sites (0.636, 95% CI=0.531–0.741) had higher canopy over the capture sites (0.186, 95% CI=0.152– 0.220). Quintana 2016
Dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) Raccoon (Procyon lotor) Sound Foraging on beaches; vigilance behaviour Raccoons reduced activity on beaches by 50%; increased vigilance by 66% Brown (2018)
Wolf (Canis lupus)
Elk and Bison (Bison bison)
Visual
Foraging on habitat; vigilance behaviour
Male elk & bison showed no response, low levels of vigilance (7%) but female elk & bison showed significantly higher vigilance (47.5%)
Laundré et al. (2001)
Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) Greater sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) Visual Lekking behaviour Across all 26 lek years, vigilance behaviour in males and females decreased as male attendance increased Boyko et al. (2004)
Saharan horned viper (Cerastes cerastes) and Sidewinder rattlesnake (Crotalus cerastes)
Allenby’s gerbil (Gerbillus andersoni)
Moonlight
Foraging on resource patches
In response to both snakes, giving-up densities of the gerbils were higher in the bush than open microhabitat. In response to moonlight, GUDs were higher on full than on the new moon
Bleicher et al. (2016)
Coyote (Canis latrans)
Black-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus californicus) and Desert cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus audubonii)
Visual
Foraging in habitat; vigilance behaviour
Jackrabbit and cottontails not only just balance food resources but reciprocally alternate levels of predation risk and escaping success in decision making
Razo et al. (2012)
Leopard (Panthera pardus), wolf, striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena) and humans Nubian ibex (Capra nubiana) Visual Foraging in habitat; vigilance behaviour GUD was lowest at 40% vegetation cover, indicating that thick vegetation might obstruct vigilance or escape opportunities. Iribarren & Kotler (2012)
Large raptors, black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas), caracal (Caracal caracal) and Leopard
Cape ground squirrel (Xerus inauris)
Visual
Foraging in habitat; vigilance behaviour
Among the colonies, only 3- 22% colonies of the landscape resulted in low foraging costs (<2,500 J/min)
Merwe & Brown (2008)
Humans
Samango monkey (Cercopithecus albogularis)
Visual
Foraging in habitat; vigilance behaviour
The GUD were greatest at ground level (0.1 m) relative to the three tree canopy levels (2.5,5 and 7 m)
Nowak et al. (2014)
Puma (Puma concolor)
Vicuña (Vicugna vicugna)
Movement
Foraging on habitat; vigilance behaviour
Puma moved less during the day (176.2 ± 3.8 SE m/h) than at dusk/dawn (290.5 ± 5.9)
Smith et al. (2019)
Barn owl (Tyto alba), Red fox (Vulpes vulpes), Sidewinder rattlesnake (Crotalus cerastes) Negev desert gerbils (Gerbillus pyramidum and G. andersoni allenbyi) Direct sight of predator Vigilance behaviour Higher GUD when sharing enclosure with caged predator compared to an enclosure without a predator Kotler et al. 2016
Lion (Panthera leo), Hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) Juvenile cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) Vocalization recordings Habitat use Reduced prey occurrence in predator-dense areas Durant 2000
Coyote White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) Real predator Daily activity levels Bucks and does shared a crepuscular lifestyle with coyotes, but adults with offspring adapted activity levels and were most active at midday. Higdon et al. 2019
Mountain lion (Puma concolor) Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) Predator faeces (chemical) Vigilance behaviour (giving up food) Altered habitat usage; higher vigilance when on outskirts of forest Altendorf et al. 2001
Raccoon, Corvids (Family Corvidae), Owl (Family Strigidae), Hawk (Family Accipitridae) Song sparrow (Melospiza melodia) Vocalization recordings Reproduction 40% reduction in offspring and increased offspring death Zanette et al. 2011
Red fox Wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) Predator faeces (Chemical) & Moonlight Use of live traps as refuge To analyse the predation risk 67.5% of the bottles (N=51) showed bite marks, treated with fox faeces lower than in the absence of predator cues (50.0%, N = 27). Interaction of the food access and moonlight showed a less frequent result for the open bottles during new moon nights (27.8%, N = 20) than during waxing/waning crescent moon nights (58.8%, N = 10). Hernandez et al. 2019
Red fox Wood mouse, field vole (Microtus agrestis), bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus), common shrew (Sorex araneus) Predator faeces and urine (chemical) Use of traps treated with rodent odour as refuge Strong avoidance of areas treated with predator scents, especially in wood mice and bank voles and least in field voles. Dickman & Doncaster 1984
Red fox Northern pocket gopher (Thomomys talpoides) Predator faeces Preference of treated or control enclosures Significant; ~66% of gophers opted for the control enclosures. Sullivan et al. 1988a
Dog Crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata) Real predator Feeding behaviour In areas where hunting dogs were used, porcupines altered home range and opted for more accessible food which required less digging and distance from refuge. Mori 2017
Harris hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus)
Egyptian geese (Alopochen aegyptiaca)
Real predator
Goose vigilance behaviour and abundance
Goose vigilance increased by 76%. Decreases in abundance (73%) were considerably larger than the number killed, indicating declines due to mere presence of predator
Atkins et al. 2017
Multiple raptor species House mice (Mus domesticus) Real predator Feeding in open habitat High predator counts coincided with increased mouse feeding in vegetation cover. This cover offered little nutrition and indicates a trade-off of food quality versus predation risk. Yïonen et al. 2002
Coyote White-tailed deer, squirrel (Sciurus spp.), Eastern cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus) Real predator Habitat preference Presence of coyotes caused deer to seek dense forest for refuge, while rabbits and squirrels used urban areas as refuge. Jones et al. 2016
Wolf Elk Real predator Habitat preference Presence of wolves caused elk to shelter in wooded areas. Creel et al. (2005).
Wolf Elk Real predator Habitat preference Presence of wolves correlated with elk changing their habitat use from open meadow to forest edge despite this habitat providing food of lower quality. This habitat use was not observed in wolf-free areas. Hernández & Laundré (2005)
Lion Plains zebra (Equus burchelli) Real predator Vigilance, habitat preference Negative correlation between lion and zebra presence on a particular patch on the same day. Zebra were observed using woodland at night as lions increased the use of woodland during the day. Zebra exhibited faster and sharper movements at night when lion activity is elevated. Fischhoff et al. (2007)
Leopard Vervet monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops) Auditory (alarm call recordings) Habitat use LOF from leopards was the strongest driver of their use of the habitat vervet monkey. Produced specific alarm calls to the threat from leopards. Coleman & Hill (2014)
Wild dog (Lycaon pictus) Greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), sable antelope (Hippotragus niger), warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) Real predator Giving-up densities (amount of food left in the patch once foraging has ended), vigilance In experimental areas Kudu GUDs and vigilance increased significantly, whereas sable antelope and warthogs stopped feeding completely Makin et al. (2017)
Brown bear Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) Real predator Access to growing vegetation (following the green-up). When bear density was higher, reindeer deviated more from the path towards lower quality food. In some cases this meant they missed the green-wave peak. Increased vigilance (faster movements) also exhibited when in closer proximity to high bear densities. Rivrud et al. (2018)
Cougar (Puma concolor) Mule deer Real predator Access to growing vegetation (following the green-up) Access to green-up vegetation by mule deer reduced by presence of cougars, particularly in Spring Lowrey et al. (2019)