Predator species
|
Prey species
|
Sensory
modality
|
Behaviour response
|
Result
|
Reference(s)
|
Black bear (Ursus americanus) |
Elk (Cervus canadensis) |
Visual |
Habitat use |
black bear predation as well as mountain lion
sites (0.636, 95% CI=0.531–0.741) had higher canopy over the capture
sites (0.186, 95% CI=0.152– 0.220). |
Quintana 2016 |
Dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) |
Raccoon (Procyon lotor) |
Sound |
Foraging on beaches; vigilance behaviour |
Raccoons reduced
activity on beaches by 50%; increased vigilance by 66% |
Brown
(2018) |
Wolf (Canis lupus)
|
Elk and Bison (Bison bison)
|
Visual
|
Foraging on habitat; vigilance behaviour
|
Male elk & bison showed no response, low levels of vigilance (7%) but
female elk
& bison showed significantly higher vigilance (47.5%)
|
Laundré et al. (2001)
|
Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) |
Greater sage grouse
(Centrocercus urophasianus) |
Visual |
Lekking behaviour |
Across
all 26 lek years, vigilance behaviour in males and females decreased as
male attendance increased |
Boyko et al. (2004) |
Saharan horned viper (Cerastes cerastes) and Sidewinder
rattlesnake (Crotalus cerastes)
|
Allenby’s gerbil (Gerbillus andersoni)
|
Moonlight
|
Foraging on resource patches
|
In response to both snakes, giving-up densities of the gerbils were
higher in the bush than open microhabitat.
In response to moonlight, GUDs were higher on full than on the new
moon
|
Bleicher et al. (2016)
|
Coyote (Canis latrans)
|
Black-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus californicus) and Desert
cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus audubonii)
|
Visual
|
Foraging in habitat; vigilance behaviour
|
Jackrabbit and cottontails not only just balance food resources but
reciprocally alternate levels of predation risk and escaping success in
decision making
|
Razo et al.
(2012)
|
Leopard (Panthera pardus), wolf, striped hyena (Hyaena
hyaena) and humans |
Nubian ibex (Capra nubiana) |
Visual |
Foraging in habitat; vigilance behaviour |
GUD was lowest at 40%
vegetation cover, indicating that thick vegetation might obstruct
vigilance or escape opportunities. |
Iribarren & Kotler
(2012) |
Large raptors, black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas), caracal
(Caracal caracal) and
Leopard
|
Cape ground squirrel (Xerus inauris)
|
Visual
|
Foraging in habitat; vigilance behaviour
|
Among the colonies, only 3- 22% colonies of the landscape resulted in
low
foraging costs (<2,500 J/min)
|
Merwe & Brown (2008)
|
Humans
|
Samango monkey (Cercopithecus albogularis)
|
Visual
|
Foraging in habitat; vigilance behaviour
|
The GUD were greatest at ground level (0.1 m) relative to the three tree
canopy levels (2.5,5 and 7 m)
|
Nowak et al.
(2014)
|
Puma (Puma concolor)
|
Vicuña (Vicugna vicugna)
|
Movement
|
Foraging on habitat; vigilance behaviour
|
Puma moved less during the day (176.2 ± 3.8 SE m/h) than at dusk/dawn
(290.5 ± 5.9)
|
Smith et al.
(2019)
|
Barn owl (Tyto alba), Red fox (Vulpes vulpes), Sidewinder
rattlesnake (Crotalus cerastes) |
Negev desert gerbils
(Gerbillus pyramidum and G. andersoni allenbyi) |
Direct
sight of predator |
Vigilance behaviour |
Higher GUD when sharing
enclosure with caged predator compared to an enclosure without a
predator |
Kotler et al. 2016 |
Lion (Panthera leo), Hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) |
Juvenile
cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) |
Vocalization recordings |
Habitat
use |
Reduced prey occurrence in predator-dense areas |
Durant
2000 |
Coyote |
White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) |
Real
predator |
Daily activity levels |
Bucks and does shared a crepuscular
lifestyle with coyotes, but adults with offspring adapted activity
levels and were most active at midday. |
Higdon et al.
2019 |
Mountain lion (Puma concolor) |
Mule deer (Odocoileus
hemionus) |
Predator faeces (chemical) |
Vigilance behaviour (giving up
food) |
Altered habitat usage; higher vigilance when on outskirts of
forest |
Altendorf et al. 2001 |
Raccoon, Corvids (Family Corvidae), Owl (Family Strigidae), Hawk (Family
Accipitridae) |
Song sparrow (Melospiza melodia) |
Vocalization
recordings |
Reproduction |
40% reduction in offspring and increased
offspring death |
Zanette et al. 2011 |
Red fox |
Wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) |
Predator faeces
(Chemical) & Moonlight |
Use of live traps as refuge |
To analyse the
predation risk 67.5% of the bottles (N=51) showed bite marks, treated
with fox faeces lower than in the absence of predator cues (50.0%, N =
27). Interaction of the food access and moonlight showed a less frequent
result for the open bottles during new moon nights (27.8%, N = 20) than
during waxing/waning crescent moon nights (58.8%, N = 10). |
Hernandez
et al. 2019 |
Red fox |
Wood mouse, field vole (Microtus agrestis), bank vole
(Clethrionomys glareolus), common shrew (Sorex araneus) |
Predator faeces and urine (chemical) |
Use of traps treated with rodent
odour as refuge |
Strong avoidance of areas treated with predator
scents, especially in wood mice and bank voles and least in field voles. |
Dickman & Doncaster 1984 |
Red fox |
Northern pocket gopher (Thomomys talpoides) |
Predator
faeces |
Preference of treated or control enclosures |
Significant;
~66% of gophers opted for the control enclosures. |
Sullivan et al. 1988a |
Dog |
Crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata) |
Real predator |
Feeding behaviour |
In areas where hunting dogs were used, porcupines
altered home range and opted for more accessible food which required
less digging and distance from refuge. |
Mori 2017 |
Harris hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus)
|
Egyptian geese (Alopochen aegyptiaca)
|
Real predator
|
Goose vigilance behaviour and abundance
|
Goose vigilance increased by 76%.
Decreases in abundance (73%) were considerably larger than the number
killed, indicating declines due to mere presence of predator
|
Atkins et al. 2017
|
Multiple raptor species |
House mice (Mus domesticus) |
Real
predator |
Feeding in open habitat |
High predator counts coincided with
increased mouse feeding in vegetation cover. This cover offered little
nutrition and indicates a trade-off of food quality versus predation
risk. |
Yïonen et al. 2002 |
Coyote |
White-tailed deer, squirrel (Sciurus spp.), Eastern
cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus) |
Real predator |
Habitat preference |
Presence of coyotes caused deer to seek dense
forest for refuge, while rabbits and squirrels used urban areas as
refuge. |
Jones et al. 2016 |
Wolf |
Elk |
Real predator |
Habitat preference |
Presence of wolves
caused elk to shelter in wooded areas. |
Creel et al.
(2005). |
Wolf |
Elk |
Real predator |
Habitat preference |
Presence of wolves
correlated with elk changing their habitat use from open meadow to
forest edge despite this habitat providing food of lower quality. This
habitat use was not observed in wolf-free areas. |
Hernández & Laundré
(2005) |
Lion |
Plains zebra (Equus burchelli) |
Real predator |
Vigilance, habitat preference |
Negative correlation between lion and
zebra presence on a particular patch on the same day. Zebra were
observed using woodland at night as lions increased the use of woodland
during the day. Zebra exhibited faster and sharper movements at night
when lion activity is elevated. |
Fischhoff et al.
(2007) |
Leopard |
Vervet monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops) |
Auditory (alarm
call recordings) |
Habitat use |
LOF from leopards was the strongest
driver of their use of the habitat vervet monkey. Produced specific
alarm calls to the threat from leopards. |
Coleman & Hill
(2014) |
Wild dog (Lycaon pictus) |
Greater kudu (Tragelaphus
strepsiceros), sable antelope (Hippotragus niger), warthogs
(Phacochoerus africanus) |
Real predator |
Giving-up densities
(amount of food left in the patch once foraging has ended), vigilance |
In experimental areas Kudu GUDs and vigilance increased significantly,
whereas sable antelope and warthogs stopped feeding completely |
Makin
et al. (2017) |
Brown bear |
Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) |
Real predator |
Access to growing vegetation (following the green-up). |
When bear
density was higher, reindeer deviated more from the path towards lower
quality food. In some cases this meant they missed the green-wave peak.
Increased vigilance (faster movements) also exhibited when in closer
proximity to high bear densities. |
Rivrud et al.
(2018) |
Cougar (Puma concolor) |
Mule deer |
Real predator |
Access to
growing vegetation (following the green-up) |
Access to green-up
vegetation by mule deer reduced by presence of cougars, particularly in
Spring |
Lowrey et al. (2019) |