The death of an animal can be difficult to confirm from the air. We instead use incapacitation (animal is recumbent, immobile and regarded as unconscious) to indicate ‘apparent death’, recognizing that an incapacitated animal may not be clinically dead [40]. Hampton et al. [41] described four parameters that could be quantified to assess welfare outcomes for helicopter- and ground-based shooting programs [42](modified for our use of incapacitation); (i) wounding rate (proportion of animals shot but not incapacitated), (ii) time to incapacitation, (iii) instantaneous insensibility rate, and (iv) anatomical locations of bullet wounds.