= 198
Data analysis
Livestock and potential rangeland productivity data were analyzed using
SPSS version 20 and Microsoft Excel program Version 2016 to generate
descriptive statistics. ERDAS2010 and Arc-GIS version 10 software’s were
used to analyze spatial land use/cover change data and map LULC.
Potential evapotranspiration data was determined from the monthly
average maximum and minimum temperature using DrinC software version 1.7
(91). Multinomial logit model (MNL) was used to analyze the survey data
types of adaptation of livestock species and livestock species
preference towards temperature, rainfall and feed availability. Trends
of temperature, rainfall and livestock population data were analyzed by
undertaking linear trend analysis. Mann-Kendall’s test for trend
significance was also used.
- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
- Land use/cover change analysis (1986-2018)
The dominant land use/cover change during the entire analysis period of
this study was bush/shrubland, followed by woody vegetation cover
(Figure 2). During the analysis period, the area under crop coverage,
bush/shrub cover and settlement showed positive changes. Between 1986
and 2018 expansion of settlement was exhibited, followed by crop and
bush/shrubland expansion that has increased by about 287 and 7%,
respectively. On the other hand, the area covered with woody, forest and
grass vegetation has shown a decreasing trend over the entire study
period with a declining rate of 18.31%, 41.9% and 22.46%,
respectively. This change indicates crop residue and bush/shrub cover
becoming the primary source of livestock feed as grassland, forest, and
wooded vegetation cover had been declined over the study period.
Bush/shrub cover
Bush/shrubland is mainly composed of species of Prosopis
juliflora , Barleria spinisepala E. A. Bruce, Asepalum
eriantherum (Vatke) Marais, Commiphora africana (A. Rich.)
Engl., Commiphora schimperi (Berg) Engl., Harmsia sidoidesK. Schum, Cissus aphyllantha Gilg., Commelina africana L.,Grewia villosa Willd., Aspilia mossambicensis (Oliv.) H.
Willd, Acalypha fruticosa Forssk., Sansevieria ehrenbergiiSchweinf. Ex Baker and several other species.
Bush/shrub cover is the dominant land use/cover types of the study area
and showed steadily increasing trend from 1986 to 2018 (Table 2).
Bush/shrubland cover increased from 38.22% in 1986 to 40.81% in 2018
with an increasing rate of 6.8%. Bush/shrub vegetation cover trend
showed a more significant change between 1995 and 2010 with a change
rate of 0.35% per year. The increasing trends of bush/shrub vegetation
cover could be associated with steadily declining patterns of grass,
forest and woody vegetation cover (Figure 2). In agreement with the
current finding Haile, Assen, and Ebro
(2010); Smit (2004) and
Coppock (1994) reported an increase of
mixed bush and shrub vegetation cover that has not accessible for
grazing livestock species. Bush/shrub plant encroachment is increasing
with the resultant decrease in grassland cover in recent decades due to
rangeland degradation in Borana plateau
(Negasa et al., 2014).
Grassland
The grass cover in the study area showed a consistent declining trend
throughout the study period. Its area decreased from 16.62% (114,530
ha) in 1986 to 13.13% (88.810 ha) in 2018. The decreasing trends of
grass cover could be associated with an increasing trend of bush/shrub
vegetation cover and cropland in the study location. In agreement to
this finding Coppock (1994) and
Smit (2004) reported an increased rate of
bush/shrub cover in response to heavy grazing in Borana rangeland of
Ethiopia. Moreover, Haile et al. (2010)
revealed steadily declining patterns of grassland cover during the
analysis period of 1967-2002. Similarly,
Gessesse and Bewket (2014) &
Aklilu et al. (2014) reported consistently
declining patterns of grassland during the analysis period of 1973-2007.
Grassland is the primary feed source for grazer livestock species such
as cattle and sheep in the study area. The declining patterns of grass
cover could result in a severe animal feed shortage and affect livestock
productivity. Thus, the expanding cultivable land could be a response to
address a ruminant feed shortage problem in order to provide the
required feed as crop residues for the animals. The relative increase in
bush/bushland cover could be a response to increasing browsers livestock
species such as camel and goat in order to secure the required feed
demand of camel and goat. According to
Rotherham (2013), most palatable and
productive grass species has declined with prolonged overgrazing, and
hence, decreaser grass species tend to dominate with increaser
herbaceous and bush plant species. Similarly,
Macharia and Ekaya (2005) reported that
overutilization of grassland areas tends to encroached by bush and shrub
vegetation, indicating decreaser grass species dominated with poorly
palatable invader plant species and affects the productivity of grazing
animal species.
Forest and woody vegetation cover
The land covered with woody vegetation and forest showed a decreasing
trend across the study period (Figure 2). The woodland cover is mainly
contained several species of acacia, Lannea rivae (chiov.)
sacleux , Dalbergia microphylla chiov and species ofcommiphora . woody vegetation decreased from about 26% (175,211
ha) in 1986 to 21% (143,138 ha) in 2018. Similarly, forestland declined
from about 15% (100,457 ha) in 1986 to 9% (58,364 ha) in 2018.
The area under woody vegetation and forest cover has shown a negative
change over the study period with an average annual decreasing trend of
0.57% for woodland and 1.31% for the forest and significantly differ
(p<0.01) throughout the study period. The land covered with
forest vegetation was declined by 41.9% throughout the study period of
1996-2018. This result revealed that the most significant change in
forest cover was observed between 2018 and 1995, while woody vegetation
cover was profoundly changed between 1995 and 1986. This change might be
due to shifting of the pastoral community from complete pastoralism to
selling of firewoods and charcoal from wooded and forestland cover as a
means of additional income-generation activities. According to
Haile et al. (2010), the livelihoods of
pastoral communities started production and selling of charcoal and
firewood as a means of additional income since 1987.
In agreement with this finding Aklilu et
al. (2014) reported decreasing patterns of forest cover over the study
period of 2007-1973 at the same study location. However,
Haile et al. (2010) reveal that
increasing patterns of woody vegetation cover between 1967 and 2002 in
Borana zone under a similar agro-ecological condition with this study.
Such variation could be due to the difference in spatial classification
of LULC change types of the rangeland. However, wooded vegetation and
forest cover were independently treated in the current study.
Cropland cover
The increasing patterns of cropland coverage were detected over the
analysis period in the study areas. Land covered with cultivable land
was about 4% (28,018 ha) in 1986, 8% (53,895 ha) in 1995, 12% (78,902
ha) in 2010 and 16% (108,520 ha) in 2018. The cultivated cropland
increased by 92.4% between 1995 and 1986, with an average annual change
of 9.24%. At the same location, 37.54% of woody vegetation cover
increase was recorded between 2010 and 2018, with an average change of
4.5% per year. The result of this study showed that there was 287.32%
increase in cultivated land over the entire study period, giving an
annual average change of 8.98%. In line with this finding
Aklilu et al. (2014) reported an increased
cropland cover by 8.3% over the analysis period (1973-2007) at Liban
district of southeastern parts of Ethiopia. According to
Haile et al. (2010), cultivable land was
showed a rapid increase since 1987 in southern Ethiopian rangeland.
Carrying capacity (CC) of rangeland
The rangeland productivity and carrying capacity were declined from 1986
to 1995 (Table 3 & 4). Decreasing patterns of feed availability were
consistent with the perception of selected respondents. Reduced carrying
capacity in the study area might be due to hydrological drought, which
occurred in 1990, 1991, 1992, 2015 and 2016. The potential carrying
capacity reported in this study might underestimate the actual carrying
capacity of the study area because cropland cover is increasing that can
supplement natural pastures but not included in this study.
The bush/shrubland cover remained the most significant potential feed
resources of the rangeland in the study area during the analysis period
(1986-2018) (Table 3). However, carrying capacity of bush/shrubland was
showed a significant decreasing pattern over the years. The potential
carrying capacity of the bush/shrubland cover was decreased from
205,158.73 TLU in 1986 to 102,795.68 TLU in 2018. The maximum number of
livestock that can browse in bush/shrubland for one year was about 27%
(205,158.73 TLU) of the total carrying capacity of the rangeland in 1986
while about 44% (102,795.68 TLU) of the total carrying capacity of the
rangeland during 2011-2018 (Table 3). The existing carrying capacity of
bush/shrub cover in the study area, in general, where showed a declining
pattern. However, bush/shrub cover remained the primary livestock feed
resources and the most significant livestock support service of the
total rangeland carrying capacity of the study area.
The maximum number of animal that can feed/browse on woody and forest
vegetation cover was about 38% (218,571 TLU/ha/year) of the total
carrying capacity of the rangeland in 1986 but after that declined to
about 35% (143,496 TLU/ha/year) and 32% (74,955 TLU/ha/year) during
1987-1995 and 2011-2018, respectively (Table 3). The woodland and forest
vegetation cover is an alternative feed resource of browser livestock
species (camel and goat) that can mainly supplement grassland. The woody
vegetation cover was the third valuable livestock holding capacity in
1986 (about 24%) and during 1987-1995, which was about 24 and 21% of
the total carrying capacity of the rangeland, respectively. However, it
was the second-largest stocking capacity of the total rangeland carrying
capacity during the analysis period of 1995-2010 (29%). According to
Giday, Humnessa, Muys, Taheri, and Azadi
(2018), the maximum number of livestock that can be raised on Desa’a
forestland cover was about 68,480.39 TLU/year in northern Ethiopia,
which was higher than the forest carrying capacity value of the
2011-2018 and comparable with the value of 1986-2011 in this study. This
variation might be due to decreasing trends of forestland cover in the
eco-environments of this study.
Of the total carrying capacity of the rangeland in the study area, the
grassland cover stock holding capacity was declined from about 158,483
TLU/year in 1986 to 55,181 TLU/year during the analysis period of
2011-2018 (Table 3). This study showed a decreasing rate of 23.93%
between 1995 and 1986, 24.88% between 2010 and 1995, and 34.78%
between 2018 and 2010. The grazing capacity of grassland was declined by
65.18% between 2018 and 1986 with an annual decreasing rate of 2.04%.
The average value of bush/shrubland carrying capacity is about 0.8
TLU/ha/year in 1986 and 0.4 TLU/ha/year during 2011-2018. The
bush/shrubland carrying capacity value of 1986 is higher than the report
of Pratt and Gwynne (1977). These authors
reported 0.2 TLU/ha/year for east Africa under the same climatic
condition, and it is comparable with the result of 2011-2018 of this
study. The average value of bush/shrubland carrying capacity during
1987-1995 of this study is in agreement with the report of
Mugerwa (1992) who reported 1.63 ha/TLU
grazing/browsing capacity. However, carrying capacity of bush/shrubland
from 1996 to 2010 was relatively lower than the finding of
Byenkya (2004) who reported 2.27 ha/TLU,
and it is comparable with this finding value of 2011-2018 (2.7 ha/TLU).
The potential carrying capacity of woody and forestland cover was
declined from 1.58 TLU/ha/year in 1986 to 0.74 TLU/ha/year during
2011-2018 (Table 4). The average carrying capacity of wooded and
forestland cover during 1986-2010 in this study was comparable with the
finding of Hocking and Mattick (1993) who
reported 2.5-3.5 ha/TLU in woody vegetation cover of Tanzania. The
reason for the declined carrying capacity of woody and forest vegetation
cover could be attributed to decreased biomass production that might be
as a result of relatively decreasing patterns of rainfall, increased
rate of temperature and solar radiation.
The average carrying capacity of grassland in the study area was
decreased from 1.38 TLU/ha (0.72 ha/TLU) to 0.62 TLU/ha (1.62 ha/TLU)
during 2011-2018 (Table 4). Such a decreasing rate may be due to
declining trends of rangeland condition and rainfall patterns of the
study area. Increasing patterns of drought years, solar radiation and
temperature pattern could be the significant factors for depleting
grassland productivity. The carrying capacity value of 2011-2018 in this
study was agreed with the finding of
Meshesha, Moahmmed, and Yosuf (2019) who
reported 4.9 ha/TLU/year of grassland under the similar microclimatic
condition. However, the carrying capacity value of grassland in 1986 was
much higher than the report of Pratt and
Gwynne (1977) who revealed 0.2 TLU/ha under similar ecological
condition. The grassland carrying capacity of the study area during
1987-1995 was relatively higher than
Mugerwa (1992) report of 1.63 ha/TLU/year
for rangelands of Uganda. Similarly,
Byenkya (2004) reported 2.27 ha/TLU
grazing capacity of southwestern Uganda, which is higher than the
carrying capacity value of 1996-2010 of this study. Therefore, the
grassland productivity and carrying capacity of the current finding
indicate that the grassland is relatively a good condition.
The decreasing trends of grassland carrying capacity could be due to
declining rangeland condition in the study area. Similarly,
Angassa and Baars (2000) reported good
rangeland condition based on the data collected in 1998. In contrast,
Dalle et al. (2006) reported fair
rangeland condition from a similar study location to the current study.
Stocking rate
The overall stocking rate of the rangeland shows an increasing pattern
in the study area (Table 5). The general stocking rate was 1.8 TLU/ha in
1986, which is much lower than the carrying capacity value of the same
year (3.76 TLU/ha/year). Whereas, the total stocking rate of the
rangeland during 1987-1995 was consistent with the estimated carrying
capacity (2.79 TLU/ha) of the same analysis period. However, the general
stocking rate of the rangeland was about 5 TLU/ha/year and 7.2
TLU/ha/year during 1996-2010 and 2011-2018, respectively and it is much
higher than the carrying capacity of the rangeland (Table 4).
The existing browser livestock species-stocking rate of bush/shrubland
of the study area was 0.77 TLU/ha/year in 1986, 2.63 TLU/ha/year during
1987-1995, 7.28 TLU/ha/year 1996-2010 and 9.38 TLU/ha/year during
2011-2018. The current stocking rate in this study relatively comparable
with carrying capacity in 1986 (0.79 TLU/ha) and much higher than its
carrying capacity during 1987-1995 (0.56 TLU/ha), 1996-2010 (0.64
TLU/ha) and 2011-2018 (0.37 TLU/ha).
The estimated stocking rate of the grass vegetation cover was 5.12
TLU/ha in 1986 and 11.79 TLU/ha during 2011-2018 based on grazer
livestock species while 5.99 TLU/ha in 1986 and 26.4 TLU/ha in 2018
based on the total livestock population in the study area. Thus, the
grassland stocking rate was much higher than its carrying capacity
throughout the analysis period (1.38, 1.11, 0.83 and 0.62 TLU/ha in
1986, 1995, 2010 and 2018, respectively). The grassland-stocking rate in
this study showed a consistently increasing pattern throughout the
analysis period, with the average increasing rate of 10.64% per year
(Table 5). The stocking rate of grass vegetation cover was augmented by
52.1% between 1986 and 1995, with an average change of 5.21% per year.
Moreover, grassland stocking was increased by 54.3% between 2018 and
2010 with an annual change of 6.8%. The stocking rate observed in this
study during the analysis period of 2011-2018 was much higher than the
finding of Meshesha et al. (2019) who
revealed 5.4 TLU/ha/year for grassland cover of similar ecological
condition with the site of this study. This variation could be
associated with an existing livestock population that can graze in the
current study area.
The current stocking rate of woody vegetation and forest cover showed a
consistently increasing trend throughout the study period (Table 5). The
stocking rate in the forest and woody vegetation cover was about 3.12
TLU/ha for browser livestock species in 1986 while it was increased to
62.51TLU/ha during 2011-2018. The woody vegetation and forest cover
stocking rate in this study is much higher than its carrying capacity
(Table 4 and 5). There was a more significant change in stocking rate of
woody vegetation and forest cover with a 59.5% increase per year for
browser livestock species. The stocking rate of woodland and forest
cover pattern was increased by about 2.6 folds (259%) between 1995 and
1986, giving an average change of 26% per year. The stocking rate of
forest and woody vegetation cover was increased by 51% between 2018 and
2010, giving an average increasing pattern of 5.7% per year. Moreover,
the stocking rate for browser livestock species was increased by 19
folds (1904%) between 2018 and 1986, giving an average change pattern
of 59.5% per year. This decreasing may be due to the declining pattern
of rangeland productivity and increasing trends of browser livestock
population in the study area.
Sustainability of grazing/browsing of the rangeland in the
study area
The relative contribution of grassland was significantly enormous in the
past and showed decreasing pattern from year to years with a resultant
increase in invasive unpalatable woody vegetation that could be mainly
available for browser livestock species such as camel and goat. The
contributions of feed resources from grassland, woody and forest
vegetation cover has shown decreasing pattern. Conversely, the area
covered with bush/shrub and cultivated cropland was increasing
throughout the analysis period. This difference might be due to
variability and erratic nature of rainfall, decreasing rate of relative
humidity and positive change in temperature of the study area throughout
the study period.
The meteorological data from 1986 to 2018 indicates that there is no
significant variation among annual rainfall. However, 13 drought years
(1988, 1991, 1992, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2015, 2016
and 2017) were identified using rainfall anomaly index. The calculated
mean annual rainfall and CV value, excluding drought years were 694.37
mm and 11.28%, respectively. However, the mean annual rainfall and CV
value during the whole analysis period (1986-2018) were 555.43 mm and
40.45%, respectively. Rangeland dynamics of the study area becomes a
non-equilibrium system throughout the study period, since rainfall with
greater than 33% of CV value during the analysis period was qualified
as non-equilibrium dynamics (Ellis,
Coughenour, & Swift, 1993; Vetter,
2004).
In contrast, it becomes near-equilibrium dynamics when the drought years
are excluded. In agreement with this finding
Meshesha et al. (2019) indicated that the
near-equilibrium of rangeland was observed by excluding the drought
years during the analysis period of 2000 to 2018. The management of the
rangeland in the equilibrium dynamics should follow Clementsian
succession theory Clements (1916) and
should be utilized by keeping numbers of livestock below its carrying
capacity while minimizing the number and increasing livestock
productivity (Caughley, 1979).
The current stocking rate over the analysis period in this study showed
consistently increasing beyond its carrying capacity. The stocking rate
and carrying capacity of the rangeland during the analysis period showed
a negative correlation (Figure 4). According to
Engler, Abson, Feller, Hanspach, and von
Wehrden (2018) and Vetter (2004), the
high number of livestock in the rangeland was responsible for
overgrazing, particularly in East African rangelands. Therefore, all
pastoral development endeavor should be implemented by considering
proper rangeland management schemes through maintaining carrying
capacity of the rangeland with an appropriate number of high producing
livestock species, destocking a colossal number of poor livestock
producers, resettlements of nomadic pastoralists into villages and
conversion of communal pasture area into private tenure scheme.
The trend analysis using Mann-kendall non-parametric test of
significance showed significantly increasing pattern of mean annual
temperature, cattle, goat and camel population in the time series data
of the study area. In contrast, significant declining trends of sheep
population and non-significant decreasing patterns of annual rainfall
was observed during the study period (Table 6). The declining trends in
sheep population suggested that poor adaptive capacity to increasing
temperature, reduction in the amount of rainfall and grassland
productivity.
Majority (p < 0.01) respondents perceived decreasing
patterns of feed availability (74.2%), feed quality (65.2%) and water
availability (83.3%) (Table 7). The declining trends of feed and water
resources may be associated with increasing patterns of temperature and
decreasing trends of rainfall in the study area. The result of this
finding has agreed with the report of
Angassa and Oba (2007) who revealed that
the amount of rainfall and distribution determine forage production.
Camel and goat population and rising temperature could have a positive
relationship that can be due to increased bush/shrub vegetation cover
and browse forage species in the study area.
As shown in Table 8, the majority of respondents had perceived that
decreasing trends of available feed resources (75.6%) and feed quality
(64.6%) corresponding with increasing patterns of temperature.
Pastoralist’s and agro-pastoralist perceived significant decreasing (p
< 0.01) patterns of feed availability (78.8%) and quality
(66.4%) while the amount of rainfall is too little. This perception
indicates that significant decreasing patterns of feed availability and
quality corresponds with the perceptions of increasing trends of
temperature and too little amount of rainfall. This study suggested that
decreasing rate of feed availability and quality had associated with
increasing patterns of temperature and declining patterns of rainfall.
The respondents perceived that decreasing amount of rainfall, increasing
patterns of temperature, encroachments of bush and poisonous plant
species are the primary determinant factor of livestock feed quality and
availability in the rangeland. The vegetation cover identified during
discussion available with household heads includes an increasing level
of the invasive bush, poisonous (Xanthium , Parthenium
hysterophorus L and Prosopis hysterophorus ) and thorny plant
species (Acacia mellifera and Acacia Senegal ). Household
heads also stated decreasing trends of palatable grass and browse
species such as elephant grass and Acacia brevispica. Decreasing
feed availability and quality perception of the respondents might be due
to increasing patterns of temperature and decreasing trends of rainfall
parameters (Onset, duration and amounts of rainfall). This finding
agreed with the report of Abebe et al.
(2012) who revealed increasing rate of poisonous, thorny and invasive
bush and declining trends of grass plant species due to drought and
erratic nature of rainfall in Borana rangeland.
Ort and Ainsworth (2012) revealed that
environmental changes are rapid to some plant species, and they become
powerless to respond while some species may develop adaptive capacity
with the extant genetic diversity in changing eco-environment. According
to Rust and Rust (2013) and
Warne, Pershall, and Wolf (2010), most
pasture and grass species (C3 plants) are more
productive under cooler and moist eco-environment while
C4 plant species are more productive under high
temperature, low moisture and high solar radiation. Furthermore,
Barker and Caradus (2001) reveal that
C4 plant species are more desirable under global warming
scenario for tropical and subtropical regions. However, the higher
vegetative productivity of C4 plants under such
increased temperature and solar radiation and decreased rainfall
(moisture) are at the expense of feed quality and quantity
(USEPA, 2016;
Valtorta, 2002).
As shown in Figure 5, preferences of livestock species as farm animal by
pastoral and agro-pastoral communities varied across temperature
patterns and amount of rainfall. Camel is more likely chosen with
increasing patterns of temperature and too little amount of rainfall. As
indicated in Table 8, the perception of respondents regarding the
adaptation of livestock species to low feed quality and availability
have shown the camel (53.7%) is more likely adapted (p <
0.01) at increasing patterns of temperature followed by a goat (25.6%).
Similarly, camel (52.5%) is more likely adapted to low-quality feed
when the amount of rainfall is too little. This finding revealed that
the camel and goat are the species that are well adapted to low-quality
feed when the temperature is increasing, and the amount of rainfall is
declined. Livestock species diversity is a means of livelihood
resilience strategy of pastoral and agro-pastoral community that is
mainly required to coping with changes in land use/cover, climate and
feed resources (FAO, 2015). According to
Coppock (1994), Borana pastoralists of
southern Ethiopian rangeland has shifting owned livestock species from
grazer (cattle and sheep) to the browser (camel and goat) because of
changing eco-environmental condition of the area.
Giday et al. (2018) also reported the
browse species feed availability from forest and woody vegetation cover
becoming an immense contributor to livestock feed resources in dryland
pastoral regions.
Comparing with goat and cattle, the probability of choosing camel in
increasing patterns of temperature was significantly (P≤ 0.05 )
increased (Table 9). Comparing with camel, goat and cattle was less
likely selected while the temperature is increasing. Comparing with
cattle, the probability of choosing sheep was increased by 129% in
declining feed resource. In comparison with sheep, cattle and goat are
less likely selected when available feed resource is decreased.
Comparing with camel, goat, and cattle was less likely (P≤ 0.05 )
adapted to increasing temperature and decreasing feed availability.
Significantly higher camel adaptation to increasing temperature and
decreasing feed availability have associated with a lower likelihood of
goat and camel. Comparing with cattle, the probability of choosing
camel, goat and sheep was increased by 81, 75 and 59% when temperature
pattern is increased, respectively (Table 9). When the temperature is
increasing, the probability of choosing cattle and sheep is decreased by
75 and 15%, respectively. In comparison, the probability of choosing
camel is increased by 6% as compared with a goat. In decreasing feed
availability, the probability of choosing camel and sheep is increased
by 5 and 9%, respectively, while goat is less likely selected comparing
with cattle. This variation could be due to the region has a higher
potential of browser forage species derived from bush/shrub, dry forest
and woody vegetation cover that is edible for goat and camel. In
agreement with this finding, Mendelsohn
and Seo (2007) reported decreasing probability of choosing cattle while
the probability of choosing goat become more significant as temperature
increases. Livestock production and productivity are severely
vulnerable, is being affected by climate change and variability in
Africa (Rust & Rust, 2013).
CONCLUSION
This study revealed that southeastern Ethiopian rangelands are
undergoing significant changes in the last four decades. The livestock
feed availability and quality significantly affected by land use/cover
changes. As a result, the rangeland carrying capacity over the analysis
period (1986-2018) was significantly decreasing; associated with
significantly decreasing rate of grassland and biomass productivity of
forage plant species in the eco-environment of the study location.
Furthermore, the stocking rate of the rangeland has significantly
increased; associated with significantly increasing trends of cattle,
camel, goat and decreasing patterns of rangeland biomass production.
The transition of available feed type from grazing to browsing has not
been able to meet the growing amounts of required feed in the study
area. This change might be associated with the declining patterns of
rainfall, rangeland increasing patterns of temperature, livestock
population and stocking rate, deterioration of natural ecosystems and
degradation of native forage species. With increasing temperature and
decreasing pattern of rainfall, the probability of choosing camel and
goat is more likely than cattle and sheep.
This study also suggested that the need for knowledge-based land use
scheme; improving early warning system for climate-related disaster risk
management; improving livestock genetic makeup for effective utilization
of available feed resources. Moreover, adopting climate-smart livestock
production scheme; improving the quality and quantity of available
livestock feed resources and raising a large number of browser livestock
species such as camel and goat with increasing temperature and
decreasing rainfall are recommended. Hence, the available feed resources
and livestock species ownership vary with climate and land use/cover
indicating the need for site-specific feed and rangeland management
scheme.