Conclusions
Bufo gargarizans is a genetically diverse species distributed broadly across East and Northeast Asia. Our study uncovers the presence of a new clade restricted to Northeast Asia. We demonstrate the complex genetic pattern of this species, where most of the genetic divergence is not associated with geographic regions. We suggest that this pattern is a result of multiple influences—robust dispersal abilities resulting from ecological characteristics, anthropogenic influence of translocation, geologic activity, and glacial cycles of the Pleistocene. We highlight the complex geologic and climatic history of Northeast Asia and encourage further research to understand its impact on the biodiversity in the region.