Note: Based on the existing test results, Mitchell et al. (2005) suggested that the friction coefficient of quartz sand is 0.5. The common anti-rotation coefficient of the particle is taken as 0.1, based on the literature (Liu et al., 2020).
Table 3. Calculation parameters during the coupling process (Note: the porosity, particle applied force, and drag force are updated every 20 cycles in each coupling interval.)