1 INTRODUCTION
Livestock is very important to the poor smallholder farmers, especially
those in the rural areas of the sub-Saharan Africa because it generates
income, serves as source of wealth, provides food and nutrition, and
increase social status of the farmers (Randolph et al., 2007; Herrero et
al., 2013; Oosting et al., 2014). These indicate that it can be linked
to some of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN, 2015).
Livestock production is, therefore, very important to poverty reduction
in low-and-middle income countries (LMICs) (Pradere, 2014). Productivity
of food animals in smallholder farms is often met with health challenges
that invariably require the use of antimicrobials for management (Kruse
et al., 2019).
Beef production is the third largest meat industry globally, with annual
meat output of about 65 million tonnes (FAO, 2015). The global meat
production was projected to increase from 218 to 376 million tonnes
between 1999 and 2030, respectively (FAO, 2018). Beef production is
complex and involves multiple stages that include calving, growing,
slaughtering, and processing under intensive management with maximum use
of pasture, forages, and protein and mineral supplements (Peel 2003;
Cameron & McAllister, 2016). Intensification of beef cattle production
facilitates antimicrobial usage (AMU) for the unavoidable infections
treatment, prophylaxis, metaphylaxis, and growth promotion (Cameron &
McAllister, 2016). From the general farm animal welfare perspective, AMU
improves the general animal health and farm environment (Hao et al.,
2014). However, confined animal feeding operations also promotes
development and dissemination of antimicrobial resistant pathogens and
associated antimicrobial resistance genes, especially in the environment
(Agga et al., 2016).
Increased global animal protein demand and animal production
intensification have led to increase in AMU on food animals and
consequent antimicrobial resistance (AMR) occurrence, a worldwide health
threat. Global AMU on food animals was estimated to be 63,151 tonnes in
2010 and projected to increase to 105,596 tonnes by 2030 (Van Boeckel et
al., 2015), because it is expected that the majority of food animals
will be herd via intensive farming by 2030. Five countries: Myanmar,
Indonesia, Nigeria, Peru, and Vietnam are expected to have highest
percentage increases in AMU in food animals of 205%, 202%, 163%,
160%, and 157%, respectively by 2030 (Van Boeckel et al., 2015).
Globally, it was estimated that 45 mg of antimicrobials are consumed
from each kilogram of harvested beef and this was projected to increase
by 67% between 2010 and 2030 in the LMICs, due to increased demand for
animal protein (Van Boeckel et al., 2015). Worldwide, 73% of
antimicrobials purchased are used in food animals, which have led to
high resistance development in livestock, with highest resistance seen
against tetracycline, sulfonamide and penicillin (Van Boeckel et al.,
2019).
Globally, AMU in food animals has been associated with AMR development,
a situation that has led to decrease in antimicrobials effectiveness
(Holmes et al., 2015). AMR has emerged as a major silent global public
health pandemic, already causing 700,000 deaths annually and could lead
to as many as ten million deaths annually by 2050, with most of these
deaths occurring in developing countries (O’Neill, 2014). If
uncontrolled, its economic impact could cost more than US$ 1 trillion
annually after 2030 (World Bank, 2017). AMR also threatens achievement
of United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 2030 and African Union
Agenda 2063 (The Africa We Want) Goal 3 of good health and food
security. As consumption of animal protein is forecast to increase
markedly over coming years in LMICs, identification of practice gaps on
AMU and resistance mitigation are imperative and can only be achieved
through surveillance and research.
The study objectives were: to assess farmers’ practices regarding AMU in
beef cattle farms, explore risk pathways for AMR dissemination from
farms, establish risk status of AMU in beef cattle production systems,
and determine presence of antimicrobials residues. Our Null hypothesis
was that socio-economic factors cannot drive antimicrobial misuse and
resistance emergence in smallholder beef cattle production systems in
Nigeria. Outcomes of the research are expected to provide background
information for policy makers and feed back to beef cattle farmers
through extension service delivery in developing countries.