Figure 2: System layered architecture.
Key SON Functions
Improving multi-UAV network performance could be realized by implementing Self-organizing Network (SON) functions [32]. However, the decision on which SON functions to include in this paper was based on the design simplicity and low cost. Therefore, only essential and most relevant SON functions are selected and classified based on the phase of operation including:
Self-configuration SON Functions
Automatic generation of default parameters: For introducing a new host, different parameters should be assigned such as [33]: network and security parameters, e.g. Internet Protocol (IP) and server addresses and certificates. Software parameters like software version. Hardware parameters as firmware and required drivers. Radio network parameters as node parameters, neighbor relationships, transmission power, etc.
Cell outage prediction: It estimates which node is a candidate for an outage and provides information about the outage expected time, likelihood, scope, and type, then reports the cell outage detection function for further processing of possible causes [33].
Cell outage detection: An outage should be detected within an adequately short time, e.g. minutes, to respond effectively. The outage detection report may include [33]: the node ID for the malfunctioned node and the type and scope of the outage.
Cell outage compensation: By autonomously adjusting network parameters to maximize performance and coverage, also fulfill mission requirements as much as possible [33].
Security Concerns
The proposed drone-based PHC system obtains residents’ COVID-19 related data using drones and then transmits it to upper-level health units. Data processing, security, and privacy concerns should be considered, so a secure tunnel, that uses end-to-end data encryption, can be utilized in collecting and transmitting data as only authenticated nodes can receive the data. Status reports are sent from the drone level to the local clinic level automatically; while a manual transmission of data is done between the general hospital and local clinics. All data is transmitted using an end-to-end secure data sharing tunnel.
Redesigned PHC System for Combating COVID-19
A PHC system, shown in Figure 3, has been developed as an RHS for the COVID-19 basic test during a full lockdown, where people are not allowed to visit health centers for testing, and thus there might be suspected or already confirmed COVID-19 patients that are not aware of carrying the virus and might be spreading it to family members unintentionally. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, to this day, still no scholar study the possibility of providing an automated COVID-19 testing service to the mass at their doorsteps during curfew situations with reduced human intervention, i.e. drone-based PHC platform, and report critical conditions to local/general hospitals for further investigation/reaction. The proposed approach suggests an algorithm to categorize patients’ conditions to a multi-level of seriousness, and also is designed to be scalable with hierarchical distribution of roles. The main five elements of the proposed approach are:
  1. The PHC payload consists of the required sensors and instructions for the testing process as well as essential COVID-19 medicine to be delivered as used when needed.
  2. The multi-UAV network acts as a portable platform and transmits the needed information to the local clinic.
  3. The person/patient is at home during a full curfew to be tested.
  4. The local clinic with general practitioners/doctors and local medical database is also considered to be the BS for the drone swarm with a drones operator.
  5. The general hospital in the city is the best-equipped place for COVID-19 containment, i.e. specialist doctors, medicine, infection control, treatment, and quarantine.
At the BS, the drone swarm, consisting of one LD and many SDs, is equipped with required testing sensors, then self-configuration is conducted. After take-off, the drones fly horizontally with a given maximum altitude to the destination area and land at the designated spot. Afterward, one approaches a SD and follows certain steps for self-testing given by the UAV and leaves the