Figure 2: System layered architecture.
Key SON Functions
Improving multi-UAV network performance could be realized by
implementing Self-organizing Network (SON) functions [32]. However,
the decision on which SON functions to include in this paper was based
on the design simplicity and low cost. Therefore, only essential and
most relevant SON functions are selected and classified based on the
phase of operation including:
Self-configuration SON Functions
Automatic generation of default parameters: For introducing a
new host, different parameters should be assigned such as [33]:
network and security parameters, e.g. Internet Protocol (IP) and
server addresses and certificates. Software parameters like software
version. Hardware parameters as firmware and required drivers. Radio
network parameters as node parameters, neighbor relationships,
transmission power, etc.
- Network authentication: Mutual authentication of node and
network is needed during the self-configuration phase, especially when
deploying new network elements [33].
- Self-optimization SON Functions
- Congestion control parameter optimization: It monitors
network load, detects overload cases, measures the urgency degree of
the overload conditions, and makes proper responses to get the system
back to a feasible load situation in a controlled manner [33].
- Packet scheduling parameter optimization: Optimize resource
efficiency by managing channel resource access while meeting Quality
of Service (QoS) requirements [33].
- Reduction of energy consumption: Energy cost is one of high
interest in the public, especially in drones. Therefore, energy
efficiency must be considered [33].
- Self-healing SON Functions
Cell outage prediction: It estimates which node is a
candidate for an outage and provides information about the outage
expected time, likelihood, scope, and type, then reports the cell
outage detection function for further processing of possible causes
[33].
Cell outage detection: An outage should be detected within an
adequately short time, e.g. minutes, to respond effectively. The
outage detection report may include [33]: the node ID for the
malfunctioned node and the type and scope of the outage.
Cell outage compensation: By autonomously adjusting network
parameters to maximize performance and coverage, also fulfill mission
requirements as much as possible [33].
Security Concerns
The proposed drone-based PHC system obtains residents’ COVID-19 related
data using drones and then transmits it to upper-level health units.
Data processing, security, and privacy concerns should be considered, so
a secure tunnel, that uses end-to-end data encryption, can be utilized
in collecting and transmitting data as only authenticated nodes can
receive the data. Status reports are sent from the drone level to the
local clinic level automatically; while a manual transmission of data is
done between the general hospital and local clinics. All data is
transmitted using an end-to-end secure data sharing tunnel.
Redesigned PHC System for Combating COVID-19
A PHC system, shown in Figure 3, has been developed as an RHS for the
COVID-19 basic test during a full lockdown, where people are not allowed
to visit health centers for testing, and thus there might be suspected
or already confirmed COVID-19 patients that are not aware of carrying
the virus and might be spreading it to family members unintentionally.
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, to this day, still no scholar
study the possibility of providing an automated COVID-19 testing service
to the mass at their doorsteps during curfew situations with reduced
human intervention, i.e. drone-based PHC platform, and report critical
conditions to local/general hospitals for further
investigation/reaction. The proposed approach suggests an algorithm to
categorize patients’ conditions to a multi-level of seriousness, and
also is designed to be scalable with hierarchical distribution of roles.
The main five elements of the proposed approach are:
- The PHC payload consists of the required sensors and instructions for
the testing process as well as essential COVID-19 medicine to be
delivered as used when needed.
- The multi-UAV network acts as a portable platform and transmits the
needed information to the local clinic.
- The person/patient is at home during a full curfew to be tested.
- The local clinic with general practitioners/doctors and local medical
database is also considered to be the BS for the drone swarm with a
drones operator.
- The general hospital in the city is the best-equipped place for
COVID-19 containment, i.e. specialist doctors, medicine, infection
control, treatment, and quarantine.
At the BS, the drone swarm, consisting of one LD and many SDs, is
equipped with required testing sensors, then self-configuration is
conducted. After take-off, the drones fly horizontally with a given
maximum altitude to the destination area and land at the designated
spot. Afterward, one approaches a SD and follows certain steps for
self-testing given by the UAV and leaves the