Chemical hazards
Chemical hazards in the workplace are a prevalent worry across multiple
industries, presenting dangers to employees’ well-being and the work
environment’s overall stability. These hazards include contact with
various chemical compounds, such as harmful substances, combustible
elements, corrosive materials, etc. Over 30 million employees within the
United States are subject to unsafe chemicals in their workplace (33).
The 2021 data addendum reveals that in 2019, exposure to specific
chemicals resulted in the loss of approximately two million lives and 53
million disability-adjusted life-years. Nearly 50% of the deaths linked
to chemical exposures that year were primarily caused by lead exposure,
leading to cardiovascular diseases (34). Employees can be exposed to
chemicals at the workplace through inhalation, eye contact, skin
contact, ingestion, and injection (35). Exposure to chemicals at work
can have several effects on health, ranging from skin burns, anthrax,
aches, ulcers in the hand and nose, irritation of windpipes, and cancer
(36).
Hazardous workplace chemicals vary based on the work environment. These
pose significant health risks, highlighting the need to understand the
different types and potential consequences. These chemical hazards are
categorized as toxic, corrosive, irritant, carcinogenic, flammable, and
mutagenic (36). Toxic chemicals are commonly present in chemical
manufacturing, agriculture, and mining industries, where substances like
solvents and pesticides are utilized (37,38). Exposure to these toxins
can lead to both acute and chronic health issues, such as respiratory
problems, organ damage, and even cancer. Irritants and corrosives, on
the other hand, encompass chemicals like strong acids, cleaning agents,
and alkalis, which find application in industries like manufacturing,
cleaning, and metalworking (36). Carcinogens are used in many industries
like healthcare, construction, and laboratories. Some of these
carcinogens include asbestos, formaldehyde, and certain solvents.
Prolonged exposure to carcinogenic substances poses a serious threat to
workers’ health as it can lead to the development of cancer (39). In
industries such as chemical plants, oil refineries, and automotive
repair shops, the use of flammable and combustible chemicals like
gasoline, aerosols, and propane increases the risk of exposure,
potentially resulting in burns, asphyxiation, or even fatalities (40).
Mutagenic substances encountered in workplaces can cause DNA changes and
genetic mutations in exposed individuals, significantly elevating the
risk of enduring health issues, including a variety of cancers. Exposure
to these mutagenic substances in the workplace can have long-lasting and
profound health consequences, with the substances encompassing a wide
array of chemicals, ranging from specific solvents and heavy metals to
pharmaceuticals and even ionizing radiation, such as X-rays and gamma
rays (40,41).
Several studies have been conducted to determine the effect of chemical
exposure on individuals in the workplace. In research conducted by
Herman Gibb and fellow researchers, the objective was to assess the lung
cancer risk associated with exposure to both trivalent and hexavalent
chromium among individuals employed in chromium production facilities.
They examined a cohort comprising 2,357 workers who were initially hired
between 1950 and 1974 at a chromate production plant, and the vital
status of these workers was tracked until December 31, 1992. From
examining the cohort, a progressive relationship between cumulative
hexavalent exposure and the incidence of lung cancer was indicated (39).
According to Van Rooy et al (42), the development of bronchiolitis
obliterans syndrome among chemical process operators was attributed to
their exposure to diacetyl during its manufacturing for food flavorings
(42). Armando Meyer and his team conducted a study examining the
correlation between the risk of rheumatoid arthritis and the utilization
of pesticides among male pesticide applicators enrolled between 1993 and
1997. The study found that heightened occurrences of rheumatoid
arthritis were linked to exposure to various pesticides, including
fonofos, carbaryl, and imuran ethyl (38). In a similar study, Parks et
al (43) observed an elevated risk of rheumatoid arthritis and the
associated condition, systemic lupus erythematosus, in women who
self-reported using insecticides during the Women’s Health Initiative
Observational Study. This risk was more pronounced in women with a
farming background. In a sample of the US population as part of the
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, increased serum levels
of organochlorine insecticides were linked to self-reported cases of
arthritis, including rheumatoid arthritis (43).
Long-term pesticide exposure was linked to increased abnormalities in
nerve conduction, particularly in sensory nerves. This extended exposure
also broadly impacted various health indicators based on blood tests. It
resulted in reduced amplitudes of the tibial nerve’s compound muscle
action potential. Short-term exposure had immediate health effects,
including changes in complete blood count, hepatic and renal functions,
and alterations in nerve conduction velocities and amplitudes (44).
The exposure to chemical hazards originating from coal combustion
emissions and diesel engine exhaust was determined to be correlated with
urinary mutagenicity, which in turn was associated with an increased
risk and development of cancer at multiple locations in the body (40).
Therefore, reducing employees’ exposure to chemical hazards within their
workplace is crucial. Emerging chemical hazards in various industries
arise from new chemical compounds, processes, and evolving risk
awareness. They can result from innovative chemicals, processes, or the
discovery of previously unrecognized risks in existing substances. It is
crucially important to adopt a forward-looking strategy to anticipate
potential risks posed by chemicals to the health and safety of workers
within an ever-evolving work landscape.
With the constant changes in work, an imminent requirement exists to
proactively identify potential hazards that may not yet be known or
expected. Early detection and alerts can significantly mitigate the
likelihood of severe consequences in terms of negative health impacts
and broader socio-economic ramifications. Some of the emerging chemicals
include nanomaterials, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), and
metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). In recent years, there has been a
growing interest in the use of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology involves
manipulating matter at scales below 100 nm, resulting in nanoparticles
with high surface area-to-volume ratios that enhance reactivity and
affect chemical reaction rates (45). Nanomaterials, owing to their
unique and beneficial characteristics encompassing chemical reactivity
(due to their small size), ductility, flexibility, optical properties,
biocompatibility, tunability, enhanced strength, and improved magnetic
attributes, offer versatile applications across an array of industries.
These applications span diverse fields, including electronics, medicine,
energy, aerospace, food production, textiles, cosmetics, and
construction (46). PFAS, or per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances,
represent a group of artificially produced chemicals. Typically, they
contain a carbon chain with most carbon sites saturated by fluorine
atoms, along with at least one functional group, like carboxylic acid,
sulfonic acid, or amine.
It is important to note that the carbon backbone may not be exclusively
carbon; for instance, ether-type PFAS include oxygen atoms in their
structure (47). Due to their high production costs, PFAS are typically
employed in scenarios where alternative substances are unable to meet
the necessary performance standards, or where PFAS can function
effectively in much smaller quantities compared to non-fluorinated
chemicals while delivering the same level of performance. For instance,
they are utilized in applications that operate across broad temperature
ranges and in situations that demand exceptionally stable and
non-reactive materials (48). PFAS have gained widespread usage across
more than 200 application areas, ranging from industrial-mining
operations to food production and fire-fighting foams. The key driving
force behind the extensive adoption of PFAS lies in the remarkable
properties associated with the carbon-fluorine (C-F) bond, which imparts
exceptional chemical and thermal stability and the unique ability to
repel oil and water (48). MOFs are ordered crystalline materials
characterized by structured networks. These frameworks are composed of
single metal ions or clusters linked together by multidentate organic
groups (49). Their distinct characteristics, such as their expansive
surface area, adjustable porosity, and varied chemical compositions,
render them applicable across various fields (49). These fields include
gas storage and purification, catalysis, drug delivery, energy storage,
electronics, coating and films, photocatalysis, and hydrogen storage
(49, 50).