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\begin{document}

\title{Lichen fallback food in nonhuman primates at high altitudes, a unique
ecological adaptation and evolutionary development}



\author[1]{Hao Pan}%
\author[2]{Rong Hou}%
\author[2]{He Zhang}%
\author[1]{Zhipang Huang}%
\author[1]{Yanpeng Li}%
\author[3]{Liangwei Cui}%
\author[1]{Wen Xiao}%
\affil[1]{Dali University}%
\affil[2]{Northwest University}%
\affil[3]{Southwest Forestry University}%


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  \date{May 27, 2024}


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\begin{abstract}
Fallback foods (FBF), classified into staple and filler types, are
low-quality food resources chosen by animals due to a shortage of
preferred food during a specific period. The selection of lichens as FBF
for Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) represents a unique
ecological adaptation and evolutionary development in the animal
kingdom. This study investigates the yearly dietary selection of five R.
bieti groups to address the issues and elucidate the nutritional value
and ecological selection of lichens for this monkey species, which
resides at the highest altitude among nonhuman primates. The results
indicate that the consumed lichens serve as the staple FBF. Two main
lichen species taken by the monkeys are Bryoria spp. and Usnea
longissimi, with Bryoria spp. being the primary choice (67.25 \selectlanguage{ngerman}± 12.20\%
compared to 15.79 ± 11.66\% from U. longissimi). Bryoria spp. provides a
higher level of digestible fiber (NDF) and a lower level of tannin, fat,
ADF, and energy compared to U. longissimi, which offers higher
availability. Lichens are the dominant food and nutritional resource for
the monkey species during the dry season, while they serve as a primary
food source rather than a nutritional resource during the wet season.
Therefore, they compensate for nutrients from other food types, such as
fruits, seeds, and leaves. Compared to other Asian colobine
counterparts, this species consumes the highest amount of lichens but
the lowest proportions of leaves, flowers, and seeds. This dietary
pattern demonstrates a specific type of ecological selection and
evolutionary development during the Quaternary. The biomass of lichens
in the monkeys' habitat has significantly decreased due to environmental
degradation. This study also provides evidence and information to
develop or amend conservation strategies and guidelines for the dietary
management of captive Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys.%
\end{abstract}\selectlanguage{ngerman}%



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