Table 4: Summary of final model results with the effect of age bodyweight motorized recreation and non-motorized recreation on pregnancy rates and bodyweight of female red deer (n = 261) between 1985 and 2015.
Figure Legends
Fig. 1 Conceptual representation of the effect of recreation on bodyweight and fecundity. Dotted box represents stress mechanism that can affect animal fecundity via two pathways.
Fig. 2 Overview of the study area with sampling locations (see data collection and preparation). Delineated in black: boundaries of the area of the Game Management Unit (GMU) (79.88 km2). Circles: monitoring locations of red deer. Triangle: sample location of recreational activities. Hatched surface: culling area of red deer. Inset: boundaries of the Veluwe including the study area. Data from Province of Gelderland (2021) and the Fauna registration system (2022).
Fig. 3 Conceptual model of the effects of recreation intensity on ungulate bodyweight and pregnancy rates. Recreation intensity includes dogs cyclists hikers horse riders and vehicles. Focus variables are indicated in white and control variables are indicated in grey. + = positive effect; - = negative effect; ? = effect is unclear; + - = effect could be both positive and negative. 1) Borowik et al. 2016; 2) Putman et al. 2019; 3) Papouchis et al. 2001; 4) Newsome et al. 2004; 5) Larson et al. 2016; 6) Carpio et al. 2021; 7) Rodriguez-Hidalgo et al. 2010; 8) Bötsch et al. 2020) 9) Vilela et al. 2020; 10) Barrios-Garcia and Ballari 2012; 11) Kuiters and Lammertsma 2005; 12) Jayakody 2008; Stankowich 2008.
Fig. 4 Available habitat for red deer in the Veluwe area between 1984 and 2015.
Fig. 5 Effects of non-motorized recreation on (a) pregnancy rates and (b) bodyweight and the effect of bodyweight on pregnancy rates of female red deer (n = 261) between 1985 and 2015.The component non-motorized recreation is extracted from a principal component analysis of dogs hikers cyclists (including ATBs) and horse riders.
Fig. 6 Final model structure and path coefficients (i.e. standardized regression coefficients) that show the direct effect of non-motorized recreation on pregnancy rates and bodyweight and the direct effect of bodyweight on pregnancy rates. Effect size path coefficients (Cohen 1992): large effect = 0.50 medium effect = 0.30 small effect = 0.10.
Figures
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